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GLOBES  AND  MAPS 


GLOBES  AND  MAPS 

IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

A  TEACHERS'  MANUAL 


By 
LEON  O.  WISWELL 

School  Libraries  Inspector,  New  York  State 
Education  Department 


RAND  McNALLY  &  COMPANY 

CHICAGO  NEW  YORK 


T(  S" 


Copyright,  iqj3, 
By  Leon  O.  Wiswell 


\    '.!•:*        Chicago     •     • 


PREFATORY  NOTE 

XPVERY  intelligent  dweller  on  the  earth,  whose  comfort  and 
J-<  happiness  from  hour  to  hour  and  even  whose  existence 
depend  on  the  relative  positions  of  the  earth  and  the  sun,  ought 
to  have  a  general  knowledge  of  the  relations  of  those  bodies  to  each 
other,  and  of  the  causes  of  certain  remarkable  phenomena  which 
they  exhibit.  It  is  not  well  for  the  rising  generations  to  pass  their 
lives  unappreciative  in  the  presence  of  such  stupendous  creations. 
The  mind  expands  in  the  study  of  the  greatness  and  power  which 
they  evidence.  A  correct  conception  of  the  world  as  a  whole  gives 
a  clear  understanding  of  the  just  relations  of  its  parts.  Therefore 
no  child  can  justly  be  denied  the  early  advantage  of  globe  lessons; 
they  will  tend  to  make  some  geography  lessons  simpler,  easier, 
and  more  interesting. 

Very  few  of  the  facts  indicated  in  these  pages  are  to  be  given  to 
the  pupils;  they  are  to  be  elicited  from  them.  A  distinction  should 
be  made  between  telling  and  teaching.  There  would  be  little  or 
no  advantage  to  be  gained  by  any  pupil  in  merely  committing  the 
facts  to  memory  and  reciting  them.  The  skillful  teacher  will  first 
see  that  step  by  step  the  various  conditions  here  described  are  illus- 
trated by  the  pupils  with  a  globe  in  hand,  and  as  each  step  is  reached 
will  obtain  from  individuals  correct  statements  of  the  facts  observed. 
If  the  teacher  has  the  power  to  make  the  lessons  thoroughly  enjoy- 
able, so  much  the  better.  An  unused  globe  may  be  an  indication 
of  some  lack  of  preparation  or  of  efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
and  it  is  assumed  that  he  will  gladly  free  himself  from  the  possi- 
bility of  such  a  charge  as  he  has  opportunity. 

The  Author 


328^89 


CONTENTS 
GLOBE  LESSONS 

PAGE 

Prefatory  Note 5 

First  Series:    For  Grades  4,  5,  and  6 

The  Earth 9 

A  Sphere     9 

Land  and  Water 9 

Rotation 10 

Directions 10 

Circles .10 

Parallels 11 

Meridians 11 

Measurements 12 

Latitude 12 

Longitude 12 

Rotation  and  Day  and  Night 13 

Revolution  and  the  Seasons 14 

Second  Series:    For  Grades  7  and  8 

Review 15 

North .»    .     .     .  15 

Two  Motions 17 

Plane  of  Earth's  Orbit 17 

Angle  of  Inclination  of  Earth's  Axis        ....  17 

Day  and  Night  and  the  Equinoxes        18 

The  Horizon 22 

The  Solstices 25 

The  Seasons 25 

Zones  (climatic) 28 

Distances  in  Miles 29 

7 


8  Contents 

PAGE 

Third  Series:    For  Upper  Elementary  or  Lower  Second- 
ary Grades 

Direction  of  the  Sun 30 

Longitude  and  Time 31 

Time  Dial 33 

Standard  or  Railroad  Time 33 

International  Date  Line  and  Days  of  the  Week  .  35 

A.M.  and  P.M 37 

Ocean  Currents 37 

Ocean  Cables  (electric) 38 

Isotherms 38 

Earth's  Orbit  Elliptical 39 

The  Analemma 39 

The  Zodiac 42 

Planets 44 

The  Moon 45 

Eclipses 45 

Tides 45 

THE  USE  OF  MAPS 

Direct  Observation  for  Fundamental  Ideas     ....  50 

The  Purpose  of  a  Map 51 

Beginnings  of  Map  Drawing 51 

Course  of  Instruction  Progressive 52 

Reading  the  Map 52 

Map  Sketching 52 

Maps  Flat  and  Spherical 53 

Practical  Use 54 

Care  of  Maps 54 

A  Suggested  Course  of  Lessons 56 

The  Index 62 


GLOBES    AND    MAPS 


IN 


ELEMENTARY    SCHOOLS 

GLOBE  LESSONS 
First  Series:   For  Grades  4,  5,  and  6 

The  earth.  The  earth  is  a  great  ball  which  swings  in 
vast  space  and  is  held  in  its  course  by  the  attraction  of 
the  sun.  It  is  of  immense  size,  being  about  25,000  miles 
around,  so  that  if  a  fast  railroad  train  going  fifty  miles  an 
hour  could  pass  clear  around  without  a  stop,  it  would 
require  about  twenty-one  days,  going  night  and  day,  to 
make  the  journey.  To  get  a  fair  idea  how  the  earth  as  a 
whole  appears,  look  at  the  moon,  which  is  another  great 
ball  but  is  much  smaller  than  the  earth. 

A  sphere.  Referring  now  to  the  globe  and  speaking 
as  if  it  were  the  real  earth,  observe  that  it  is  round.  As 
there  are  different  ways  of  being  round,  it  is  not  sufficient 
to  say  merely  that  a  thing  is  round.  A  plate  is  round,  so 
is  a  stovepipe.  The  earth  is  round  like  a  ball,  so  it  is 
called  a  sphere.  Only  one  half  of  it  can  be  seen  at  any 
one  time.  This  half  is  called  a  hemisphere  (hemi  means 
half).  There  is  always  a  corresponding  hemisphere  on 
the  other  side.  A  different  hemisphere  is  presented  to 
the  eye  every  time  the  position  of  the  earth  or  the  ob- 
server is  changed. 

Land  and  water.  Observe  the  land  and  water  forms. 
Point  out  the  continents  and  oceans,  naming  each.  Point 
out  the  United  States,  the  state  of  New  York,  and  the 


10        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

location  of  home.  Observe  the  so-called  eastern  hemi- 
sphere; the  so-called  western;  the  northern;  the  south- 
ern. Find  a  hemisphere  that  has  much  more  land  than 
water;  find  one  that  has  much  more  water  than  land. 

Rotation.    The  earth  turns  like   a  wheel,    and  this 

motion  is  called  rotation  (rota  means  wheel).    The  line 

around  which  it  turns  is  the  axis  (axis  means  axle).    The 

otfkhern  end  of  the  axis  is  the  North  Pole,  the  southern 

<~€m  is  the  South  Pole. 

Directions.  Draw  out  definitions  of  up  and  down, 
showing  that  up  means  above  and  down  means  beneath. 
To  a  man  standing  erect,  up  is  directly  overhead  and  down 
is  toward  his  feet  or  toward  the  center  of  the  earth. 
Carefully  show  that  this  is  true  in  every  position  of  the 
globe. 

To  a  man  standing  with  his  face  toward  the  north,  east 
is  toward  his  right,  west  is  toward  his  left,  and  south  is 
behind  him.  Show  that  this  is  true  in  every  position  of 
the  earth.  Teach  the  mid-directions,  northeast,  south- 
east, northwest,  and  southwest.  Teach  the  abbrevia- 
tions, N.,  S.,  E.,  W.,  N.  E.,  etc. 

Circles.  As  the  location  of  a  building  in  a  city  may 
sometimes  be  described  best  by  naming  two  streets  near 
or  on  both  of  which  it  stands,  as,  for  instance,  at  the 
corner  of  42 d  Street  and  5th  Avenue,  so  the  location  of 
any  point  on  the  earth  may  sometimes  be  described  best 
by  naming  two  established  lines  at  the  intersection  of  which 
it  stands.  Men  have  laid  out  hundreds  of  lines  on  the 
earth,  for  this  and  other  purposes.  They  are  not  really 
drawn  on  the  earth,  but  many  of  them  are  drawn  on 
maps  and  globes,  and  any  astronomer  or  ship  navigator, 
and  some  surveyors,  can  easily  find  their  places  on  the 
earth.    It  will  be  seen  that  because  the  earth  is  spherical 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        11 


these  lines  cannot  be  straight;  they  must  be  curved. 
In  fact,  they  are  circles.  Some  of  these  are  now  to  be 
studied. 

Parallels.  Passing  around  the  earth  exactly  midway 
between  the  poles  is  a  circle  called  the  Equator  (aequus 
means  equal),  which  divides  the  earth's  surface  into  two 
equal  parts  and  which  marks  the  line  of  separation  between 
the  Northern  Hemisphere  and  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 


parallels 

Fig.  i. 


Meridians 
Parallels  and  Meridians 


Observe  that  both  north  and  south  of  the  Equator 
other  circles  are  drawn  east  and  west  on  the  globe  map 
parallel  to  the  Equator  and  to  each  other,  that  is,  extend- 
ing in  the  same  direction.  These  are  called  parallels. 
They  diminish  in  size  toward  the  poles;  and  because 
each  divides  the  earth's  surface  into  two  unequal  parts 
they  are  called  small  circles.  Circles  that  divide  the 
earth's  surface  equally  are  called  great  circles. 

Meridians,  Other  lines  are  drawn  north  and  south 
from  pole  to  pole,  some  of  them  being  marked  on  the 
globe.  These  are  called  meridians  (tnedius  means  mid; 
dies  means  day),  because  when  the  sun  stands  directly 
over  any  one  of  them  it  is  exactly  midday  or  noon  at 
every  place  through  which  it  passes.    Observe  that  the 


12        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

meridians  are  half  circles,  that  they  are  not  parallel,  and 
that  each  meridian  with  its  opposite  makes  a  great  circle. 

Measurements.  The  unit  of  measure  of  parts  of  cir- 
cles is  a  degree.  Every  circle,  great  or  small,  is  said  to 
measure  360  degrees  (3600).  It  will  be  seen  therefore 
that  degrees  on  a  circle  vary  in  length  according  to  the 
size  of  the  circle.  A  semicircle  (semi  means  half),  meas- 
ures 180  degrees  (1800),  and  a  quarter  circle  measures 
ninety  degrees  (oo°).  Note  that,  measuring  on  a  merid- 
ian, it  is  1800  from  the  North  Pole  to  the  South  Pole,  and 
that  it  is  900  from  the  Equator  to  either  pole. 

Latitude.  Latitude  is  distance  north  or  south  of  the 
Equator.  Draw  out  that  all  places  on  the  same  parallel 
have  the  same  latitude,  that  the  places  which  have  the 
highest  latitude  are  the  North  Pole,  ninety  degrees  north 
latitude  (900  N.),  and  the  South  Pole,  ninety  degrees  south 
latitude  (900  S.) ,  and  that  because  we  begin  at  the  Equator 
to  reckon  latitude  all  places  through  which  it  passes  have 
no  latitude  (o°).  Find  on  the  globe  the  approximate 
latitude  of  various  places,  north  and  south,  including 
your  home.  Find  the  difference  in  latitude  between 
places  north  of  the  Equator,  places  south  of  the  Equator, 
and  places  one  of  which  is  north  of  the  Equator  and  the 
other  south  of  it. 

Longitude.  Longitude  is  distance  east  or  west  of  some 
meridian  that  is  taken  as  a  line  at  which  to  begin  measur- 
ing. Such  a  meridian  is  called  the  prime  meridian.  The 
meridian  most  commonly  agreed  on  as  such  a  line  is  one 
which  passes  through  a  celebrated  observatory  at  Green- 
wich, near  London,  England.  Be  careful  to  observe  that 
in  passing  directly  east  or  west  from  any  point  a  parallel 
must  be  followed,  that  the  parallels  are  circles,  that  they 
diminish  in  size  toward  the  poles,  and  therefore  that 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        13 

degrees  of  longitude  vary  in  length,  being  longest  at  the 
Equator  and  shortest  near  the  poles.  At  the  Equator 
a  degree  measures  69.16  miles.  Observe  that,  in  reckon- 
ing the  longitude  of  any  place,  measurement  is  made 
from  the  prime  meridian  to  the  meridian  which  passes 
through  that  place,  and  that  all  places  on  the  same  merid- 
ian have  the  same  longitude.  Likewise,  in  reckoning 
the  latitude  of  any  place,  measurement  is  made  from  the 
Equator  to  the  parallel  which  passes  through  that  place, 
and  all  places  on  the  same  parallel  have  the  same  latitude. 

Find  the  prime  meridian.  Find  the  longitude  of 
places  east  of  the  prime  meridian;  of  places  west  of  it. 
Notice  that  the  meridians  which  are  marked  on  the  globe 
are  numbered  in  degrees  along  the  Equator.  Find  the 
difference  in  longitude  between  two  places  east  of  the 
prime  meridian;  of  two  places  west  of  it;  of  two  places 
one  of  which  is  east  of  it  and  the  other  west  of  it.  What 
is  the  meaning  of  4o°E.  ?  of  400  W.  ?  Find  the  meridian 
which  is  exactly  opposite  the  prime  meridian.  Give  its 
number  in  degrees.  [1800  east  or  west.]  Find  the  loca- 
tion of  points  whose  latitude  and  longitude  are  given. 

Rotation  and  day  and  night.  For  the  lessons  on 
rotation  and  revolution,  let  some  object  in  the  room 
represent  the  sun;  but  give  the  pupils  to  understand 
that,  to  have  the  proportions  right,  if  the  globe  is  twelve 
inches  in  diameter,  the  object  representing  the  sun 
should  be  a  ball  about  108  feet  in  diameter  and  it  should 
be  more  than  two  miles  away.  Some  object  on  a  table 
around  which  the  globe  may  be  carried  will  be  most 
satisfactory,  especially  for  the  lesson  on  revolution. 
Hold  the  globe  in  the  position  for  one  of  the  equinoxes 
as  indicated  in  Fig.  7,  the  axis  pointing  upward  and 
toward  the  north,  and  the  sun  shining  vertically  on  the 


14        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

Equator,  thus  giving  a  correct  impression  from  the  first 
and  leaving  nothing  to  be  unlearned. 

Then  show  that  the  earth  rotates  around  its  axis  from 
west  to  east,  that  is,  in  a  direction  contrary  to  that 
taken  by  the  hands  of  a  watch  placed  at  the  North  Pole, 
face  up,  and  that  it  makes  one  complete  turn  every 
twenty-four  hours.  The  side  (hemisphere)  toward  the  sun 
has  day,  the  opposite  side  has  night.  As  the  earth  rotates, 
follow  places  thereon  from  sunrise  to  noon;  to  sunset;  to 
midnight.  Show  that  to  a  man  on  the  earth,  the  sun 
rises  in  the  east  and  sets  in  the  west. 

Revolution  and  the  seasons.  Place  the  globe  in  some 
good  position  for  a  starting  place,  as,  for  instance,  that 
for  the  summer  solstice,  June  21,  indicated  in  Fig.  5, 
and,  leaving  most  details  for  the  advanced  lessons,  illus- 
trate the  two  principal  motions  of  the  earth  by  passing 
the  globe  around  the  mimic  sun  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  that  taken  by  the  hands  of  a  watch  held  face  up,  and 
at  the  same  time  rotating  it  as  already  described.  Be 
careful  to  tip  the  axis  a  little  toward  the  north,  and  to 
keep  it  pointing  all  the  time  as  nearly  as  may  be  in  the 
same  direction.  This  motion  around  the  sun  is  called 
the  revolution.  Each  revolution  requires  just  one  year. 
The  path  the  earth  takes  is  called  its  orbit.  (Fig.  4.) 
If  the  school  globe  is  full  mounted,  that  is,  has  a  horizon 
circle,  it  should  be  lifted  from  the  frame  whenever  there 
is  occasion,  as  in  presenting  lessons  on  revolution. 

Explain  that  the  sun  not  only  lights  the  earth  but 
heats  it,  and  that  it  heats  most  those  parts  which  are 
turned  directly  toward  it.  Those  parts  of  the  earth  which 
receive  only  slanting  rays  for  a  long  time  are  cold,  while 
those  which  receive  none  at  all  are  very  cold.  Show  that 
in  the  region  of  the  Equator  the  climate  is  always  warm 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        15 

(torrid)  and  that  in  the  region  of  the  poles  it  is  always 
cold  (frigid).  The  intermediate  regions  on  the  north 
and  the  south  are  neither  very  cold  nor  very  warm 
(temperate).  Each  of  these  broad  regions  or  belts  is 
called  a  zone.  There  are  thus  two  frigid  zones,  two  tem- 
perate zones,  and  one  torrid  zone,  five  in  all.  Show 
that  in  one  part  of  the  earth's  course  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere is  inclined  somewhat  toward  the  sun  while  at 
the  same  time  the  Southern  Hemisphere  is  turned  partly 
away  from  it.  At  that  time  of  year  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere has  summer  while  the  Southern  Hemisphere  has 
winter.  In  another  part  of  its  course  the  Southern 
Hemisphere  is  turned  toward  the  sun  somewhat  while 
the  Northern  Hemisphere  is  turned  away  from  it.  Then 
the  seasons  are  reversed. 

Follow  your  home  through  the  change  of  seasons. 

Second  Series  :  For  Grades  7  and  8 
Review.    Review  any  parts  of  the  first  series  of  lessons 
that  need  attention. 

North.  In  these  lessons  the  term  north  refers  to  the 
true  north,  not  to  some  other  direction  assumed  to  be 
north.  An  approximation  is  all  that  is  here  expected. 
The  principal  guide  to  mariners  and  scientists  in  deter- 
mining the  direction  of  north  has  for  ages  been  the  North 
Star,  whose  scientific  name  is  Polaris.  The  axis  of  the 
earth  points  almost  exactly  toward  it.  See  diagram 
and  show  pupils  how  to  find  it.  They  should  look  first 
for  the  group  of  stars  commonly  called  the  Big  Dipper 
(the  scientists  speak  of  it  as  the  constellation  of  Ursa 
Major;  ursa  means  bear,  major  means  greater),  which 
may  be  found  in  different  positions  in  the  northern 
heavens,  as  it  seems  to  move  around  the  North  Star. 


16 


A* 


North  star 


>'■  *  * 

/     ~k  *      * 

/  Big  Dipper. 

/ 

/  *^ 

/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 


/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 

/ 


/ 

i 


f       Jj  tartk's 


Plant  of  f       J  ,artt'i  grftg 


The  earth.  The  8Un 

Fig.  2.    Finding  the  North  Star 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        17 

Two  stars  in  the  Big  Dipper  opposite  the  handle  indi- 
cate the  direction  toward  the  North  Star,  which,  though 
not  very  bright,  is  the  first  very  noticeable  star  in  line. 
(Fig.  2.) 

Two  motions.  Hold  the  globe  level  with  the  mimic 
sun,  incline  the  axis  toward  the  north  somewhat.  Rotate 
it  as  described  under  Rotation  on  page  14,  and  pass  it 
around  the  sun  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  taken  by 
the  hands  of  a  watch  held  face  up,  and  with  the  axis 
all  the  while  pointing  toward  the  north.  This  represents 
one  complete  circuit  around  the  sun,  which  requires  one 
year.  The  path  taken  by  the  earth  is  called  its  orbit.  As 
seen  from  the  earth,  the  sun  appears  to  be  following  the 
same  path,  and  this  apparent  course  of  the  sun  is  called 
the  ecliptic.     (Fig.  4.) 

Plane  of  earths  orbit.  A  plane  is  a  perfectly  flat 
surface,  real  or  imaginary.  It  may  be  represented  by  the 
side  of  any  smooth,  flat  object.  A  plane  has  length  and 
width  but  no  thickness.  Now  imagine  a  plane  which 
passes  through  the  center  of  the  sun  and  the  center  of 
the  earth,  and  extends  far  in  every  direction.  As  the 
earth  revolves  around  the  sun,  the  center  of  it  lies  con- 
tinually in  such  a  plane;  in  other  words,  every  part  of 
the  earth's  course  lies  in  what  is  called  the  plane  of  its 
orbit.     (Fig.  5  or  6.) 

Angle  of  inclination  of  earth's  axis.  Explain  that  circles 
are  used  to  measure  angles.  Draw  a  quarter  circle  on  the 
blackboard  and  draw  thereon  straight  lines  to  illustrate 
various  angles,  as,  300,  450,  6o°,  66^°,  900.  An  angle 
of  900  is  called  a  right  angle.  Note  that  a  line  making 
an  angle  of  66^°  with  the  base  is  inclined  23}^°  from  the 
perpendicular,  and  so  illustrates  the  position  of  the  earth's 
axis.    (900—  66^°  =  23^°.)    Place  the  axis  of  the  globe 


18        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 


IS" from  % 
base  or  73" 
from.perptt 

dicular 


Base 

Fig.  3.  A  quadrant,  or  one  fourth  of  a  circle.  The  oblique 
lines  indicate  various  angles  with  the  base.  The  heavy  line 
indicates  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis  as  compared 
with  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  which  is  represented  by  the  base 

wholly  in  the  plane  of  its  orbit  as  nearly  as  may  be; 
vertical  to  the  plane.  Incline  the  axis  toward  the  north 
and  23J40  from  the  vertical  position.  This  is  approxi- 
mately the  direction  which  the  axis  of  the  earth  takes 
the  year  round.  (Fig.  4.)  The  axis  of  a  globe  having 
a  graduated  metallic  meridian  circle  can  easily  be  set  at 
an  angle  of  23^°  from  a  vertical  position,  or  any  other 
angle,  by  adjusting  the  meridian  with  reference  to  the 
attached  orbital  plane. 

Day  and  night  and  the  equinoxes.  Call  attention  to 
the  fact  that  the  apparent  passing  of  the  sun  across  the 
heavens  from  east  to  west  is  an  illusion  which  deceived 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        19 

the  wisest  men  for  ages,  and  illustrate  the  first  appearance 
of  the  sun  in  the  morning  to  a  man  standing  near  your 
school.  Imagine  him  as  standing  facing  the  east  with 
his  left  hand  toward  the  north  and  his  right  hand  toward 
the  south.  Obviously,  if  the  position  of  the  globe  is  not 
correct  and  it  is  not  rotated  in  the  right  direction,  the 
sun  will  not  seem  to  rise  in  front  of  the  man.  The 
teacher  should  make  sure  about  these  points  before  she 
gives  the  lesson,  and  should  in  advance  consult  some  one 
who  knows  if  she  is  doubtful. 

Show  that  in  the  earth's  revolution  around  the  sun 
there  comes  a  time  when,  owing  to  the  inclination  of  the 
earth's  axis,  the  sun's  rays  meet  the  earth's  surface  ver- 
tically at  a  point  23^°  north  of  the  Equator,  and  that 
at  the  same  time  they  extend  23^°  beyond  the  North 
Pole  while  they  lack  23^°  of  reaching  the  South  Pole. 
(Figs.  5  and  6.)  This  condition  marks  the  location  of 
three  circles  on  the  earth,  one  23^°  from  the  North 
Pole,  called  the  Arctic  or  North  Polar  Circle,  another 
23 y2°  from  the  South  Pole«called  the  Antarctic  or  South 
Polar  Circle,  and  a  third  23^°  north  of  the  Equator 
called  the  Tropic  of  Cancer.  The  marking  of  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer  or  either  of  the  other  circles  may  perhaps  be 
more  clearly  understood  if  a  ray  of  sunlight  be  imagined 
as  an  immovable  pencil  with  the  point  touching  the  earth. 
Such  a  pencil  would  mark  a  circle  at  each  rotation. 

The  teacher  should  dwell  with  patience  on  these  rela- 
tive positions  of  the  earth  and  the  sun,  as  they  appear 
on  June  2 1  of  each  year,  till  the  facts  are  clearly  under- 
stood, for  otherwise  the  causes  of  the  seasons  and  of  long 
and  short  days  will  not  be  clear. 

Observe  that  by  a  man  standing  on  the  Tropic  of  Cancer 
on  this  day,  the  sun,  at  noon,  is  seen  directly  overhead ; 


20        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

that  to  one  standing  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle  there  is 
no  night,  the  sun  being  in  sight  during  the  entire  rotation; 
that  one  standing  anywhere  between  the  Equator  and  the 
Arctic  Circle  has  the  day  longer  than  the  night;  that 
toward  the  north  the  day  grows  longer  and  the  night 
shorter;  that  a  man  standing  south  of  the  Antarctic 
Circle  has  no  day,  the  sun  being  out  of  sight  during  the 
entire  rotation;  that  a  man  standing  anywhere  between 
the  equator  and  the  Antarctic  Circle  has  the  night  longer 
than  the  day;  that  toward  the  south  the  night  grows 
longer  and  the  day  shorter;  and  that  at  any  point  on  the 
Equator  the  day  and  the  night  are  exactly  equal.  On 
this  date  occur  the  longest  day  and  the  shortest  night  in 
the  Northern  Hemisphere,  while  in  the  Southern  Hemi- 
sphere occur  the  shortest  day  and  the  longest  night. 

Revolve  the  earth  one  fourth  the  distance  around  the 
sun,  with  the  axis  still  directed  toward  the  north  as 
described,  and  observe  that  the  direct  vertical  rays  of 
the  sun  meet  the  earth  at  the  Equator,  and  that  the  sun- 
light covers  a  hemisphere  that  on  the  north  extends  just 
to  the  North  Pole  and  on  the  south  just  to  the  South 
Pole.  Observe  also  that  on  this  day,  September  22,  the 
days  and  nights  are  equal  over  the  entire  earth.  This  is 
called  the  autumn  equinox  (aequus  means  equal,  nox 
means  night). 

Revolve  the  earth  another  fourth  of  the  distance  around 
the  sun,  still  pointing  the  axis  toward  the  north.  This 
brings  them  to  a  time  representing  December  2 1 .  (Figs 
4  and  6.)  Observe  that  the  conditions  with  regard 
to  day  and  night  are  exactly  the  reverse  of  those 
which  existed  on  June  21.  The  sun  shines  vertically 
over  a  point  on  the  earth's  surface  23^°  south  of  the 
Equator  and  so  marks  the  position  of  a  circle  called  the 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        21 


Spring* 
equinox 


fi 


Earth 
aphelionf 


iSui 


Earth  in 
-^perihelion 


'*9 


kto: 


Autumn 
equinox 

Fig.  4.  Relative  positions  of  the  earth  and  the  sun  during  the  spring 
equinox,  the  summer  solstice,  the  autumn  equinox,  and  the  winter  solstice 

Tropic  of  Capricorn.  North  of  the  Arctic  Circle  there 
is  continuous  night,  south  of  the  Antarctic  Circle  there 
is  continuous  day,  between  the  Equator  and  the  Arctic 
Circle  the  nights  are  longer  than  the  days,  and  between 
the  Equator  and  the  Antarctic  Circle  the  days  are  longer 
than  the  nights.  On  this  date  occur  the  shortest  day 
and  the  longest  night  of  the  year  in  the  Northern  Hemi- 
sphere, while  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  occur  the 
longest  day  and  the  shortest  night.  It  will  be  seen  that 
from  June  21  to  December  21  the  days  in  the  Northern 


22        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

Hemisphere  have  become  gradually  shorter  and  the 
nights  correspondingly  longer,  while  on  the  other  hand 
the  days  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere  have  become  grad- 
ually longer  and  the  nights  shorter.  On  the  Equator 
the  days  and  nights  are  still  exactly  equal. 

Observe  also  that  during  this  period  of  six  months  the 
sun  has  seemed  to  move  gradually  toward  the  south, 
daily  rising  and  setting  a  little  lower.  Every  child  in  the 
class  has  observed  the  fact  that  the  sun  moves  lower 
in  the  south  in  winter  than  in  summer,  but  by  the  use 
of  the  globe  both  the  cause  and  the  effect  of  this  phe- 
nomenon can  be  made  quite  clear. 

In  continuing  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the 
sun,  lead  the  pupils  to  observe  that  the  changes  in  the 
lengths  of  day  and  night,  for  the  next  six  months  after 
December  21,  are  the  reverse  of  those  during  the  pre- 
ceding six  months;  that  is,  north  of  the  Equator  the  days 
lengthen  and  the  nights  correspondingly  shorten,  while 
south  of  the  Equator  the  days  shorten  and  the  nights 
correspondingly  lengthen.  Note  also  that  in  the  posi- 
tion halfway  between  that  for  December  21  and  that 
for  June  21,  there  is  a  day  when  again  the  direct  vertical 
rays  of  the  sun  shine  upon  the  Equator  and  daylight 
extends  over  a  hemisphere  reaching  .from  the  North 
Pole  to  the  South  Pole.  This  is  March  21,  the  spring 
equinox.  (Fig.  7.)  Observe  that  then  again  the  days 
and  nights  over  the  entire  earth  are  equal.  Note  fur- 
ther that  on  the  Equator  they  have  been  found  equal  all 
the  time.  At  the  equinoxes,  when  the  sun  seems  to 
move  across  the  Equator,  it  is  said  to  "cross  the  line." 

The  horizon.  The  line  where  the  earth  and  the  sky 
seem  to  meet  is  commonly  called  the  horizon.  Scien- 
tists use  the  term  to  indicate  (a)  the  plane  passing  through 


'  i? 


23 


»vi*  n3}N 


24 


»p»*  vfl*N 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        25 

the  eye  of  the  observer  at  right  angles  to  the  vertical 
at  any  given  point,  called  the  sensible  horizon;  and 
(6)  the  plane  passing  through  the  center  of  the  earth 
parallel  to  the  sensible  horizon,  called  the  rational  horizon. 

The  solstices.  Observe  that  in  the  earth's  swing 
around  the  sun,  which  we  began  to  study  in  the  position 
for  June  21,  it  reaches  a  position  halfway  around  on 
December  21,  and  that  thereafter  it  passes  upon  its 
return  journey.  The  sun  which  from  day  to  day  had 
seemed  to  men  on  the  earth  to  move  toward  the  south, 
on  that  day  reaches  its  farthest  limit,  and  thereafter 
seems  to  move  toward  the  north;  but  on  that  day  it 
seems  to  move  neither  north  nor  south.  Hence  the  day 
is  called  the  solstice  (sol  means  sun;  sister e  means  to 
stand).  This  is  called  the  winter  solstice;  there  is  a 
similar  day  on  June  21,  which  is  known  as  the  summer 
solstice. 

The  seasons.  Every  child  knows  that  the  chief 
source  of  heat  as  well  as  light  is  the  sun.  In  the  study 
of  day  and  night,  light  has  been  a  fundamental  factor; 
in  a  study  of  the  seasons,  heat  is  a  fundamental  factor. 
First  compare  the  effects  of  vertical  rays  of  heat  with 
those  of  slanting  or  oblique  rays. 

Distance,  of  course,  affects  the  intensity  of  heat,  the 
intensity  diminishing  as  the  distance  increases,  and 
conversely;  but  the  amount  of  heat  which  a  surface 
receives  depends  also  upon  the  relative  direction  whence 
it  comes.  If,  for  instance,  the  rays  meet  the  surface, 
vertically,  it  receives  far  more  heat  than  it  would  if  the 
rays  were  very  slanting,  for  it  intercepts  a  far  greater 
number  of  them.  These  statements  may  not  be  under- 
stood by  the  pupils,  but  they  may  be  made  clear  by  the 
use  of  a  lamp  and  a  piece  of  cardboard  or  any  similar 


26        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

apparatus.  The  broader  general  truth  may  be  formu- 
lated somewhat  as  follows:  The  more  nearly  vertical 
the  rays,  the  greater  the  heat;  and  conversely,  the  more 
slanting  the  rays,  the  less  the  heat. 

Again  place  the  globe  in  the  position  for  June  21,  as 
already  described  on  page  19.  (See  also  Fig.  5.)  Observe 
that  the  sun's  heat  rays  as  well  as  its  light  rays  meet  the 
earth  vertically  on  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  that  they  reach 
the  entire  Northern  Hemisphere,  becoming  very  slanting 
at  the  far  north,  that  they  become  more  and  more  slant- 
ing from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  to  the  Antarctic  Circle, 
where  they  cease,  and  that  all  south  of  the  Antarctic 
Circle  is  shut  off  from  direct  rays  of  heat  as  well  as 
light.  Reason  from  these  observations  that  it  is  very 
warm  at  that  time  of  year  for  some  distance  north  and 
south  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  that  it  is  cold  in  the 
region  of  the  North  Pole,  that  it  is  far  colder  in 
the  region  of  the  South  Pole,  and  that  there  is  a  middle 
region  on  both  the  north  and  the  south  where  the  cli- 
mate is  neither  very  hot  nor  very  cold.  Observe  that 
in  June  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  having  long  days  and 
short  nights  and  receiving  more  directly  the  heat  rays  of 
the  sun,  must  be  warmer  than  the  Southern  Hemisphere, 
which  has  long  nights  and  short  days  and  receives  less 
directly  the  heat  rays  of  the  sun.  It  is  then  summer 
in  the  Northern  Hemisphere  and  winter  in  the  Southern. 
June  2 1  would  be  midsummer  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
and  midwinter  in  the  southern  were  it  not  that,  as  the 
earth  warms  so  slowly  after  winter  and  cools  so  slowly 
after  summer,  the  seasons  all  lag  behind  the  sun.  Hence 
it  is  that  this  date  is  only  the  beginning  of  summer,  as 
the  astronomers  count  it. 

On  passing  the  globe  around  the  sun  again,  as  before, 


27 


28        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

it  can  be  seen  that  between  June  21  and  December  21 
the  conditions  with  regard  to  both  heat  and  light  become 
reversed  so  that  on  the  latter  date  there  is  summer  in 
the  Southern  Hemisphere  while  there  is  winter  in  the 
Northern.  (Figs.  4  and  6.)  Midway  between  these 
dates,  on  March  21  and  September  22,  when  the  cold 
of  winter  on  one  hand  and  the  heat  of  summer  on  the 
other  hand  have  become  moderate,  occur  the  spring 
or  vernal  equinox  and  the  autumn  equinox,  the  begin- 
ning of  spring  and  autumn  respectively  in  the  middle 
latitudes.  (Fig.  7.)  Winter  is  said  to  begin  on  De- 
cember 2if  the  winter  solstice. 

Observe  that  as  the  vertical  rays  of  the  sun  pass  from 
the  Tropic  of  Cancer  to  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  and  back 
each  year  and  are  never  far  from  the  Equator,  the  region 
of  the  Equator  must  be  very  warm  the  year  round. 
The  continued  exposure  to  the  sun  of  each  frigid  zone 
for  months  at  a  time  without  any  night  would  make  it 
unbearably,  even  dangerously,  hot  were  it  not  that  the 
heat  rays  there  meet  the  surface  of  the  earth  very  slant- 
ingly, and  so  impart  little  heat. 

Zones.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  on  the  earth 
five  broad  regions  or  belts  (zones)  in  each  of  which  the 
weather  conditions  (climate)  have  marked  character- 
istics. There  is  the  very  warm  belt  between  the  tropics, 
called  the  Torrid  Zone;  there  are  the  two  very  cold 
regions  about  the  poles,  the  one  on  the  north  extend- 
ing south  to  the  Arctic  Circle  and  called  the  North 
Frigid  Zone,  the  other  on  the  south  extending  north 
to  the  Antarctic  Circle  and  called  the  South  Frigid 
Zone;  and  there  are  the  two  intermediate  regions  called 
respectively  the  North  Temperate  Zone  and  the  South 
Temperate  Zone.     (Fig.  6.) 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        29 

An  interesting  discussion  may  be  started  by  inquiring 
what  the  effect  would  be  if  the  axis  of  the  earth  were 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit.  Would  there  be 
any  change  of  seasons?  The  following  diagram  (Fig.  8) 
indicates  the  position  in  which  the  globe  should  be  held 
while  the  pupils  are  studying  the  question. 


Plane  of  earth 's "orbit 


tThe  earth  The  sun 

Fig.  8.     The  earth  shown  as  it  would  be  if  its  axis 
were  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  orbit. 


Distances  in  miles.  To  find  the  distance  in  miles 
between  any  two  points  on  the  earth,  stretch  a  narrow 
strip  of  writing  paper  from  one  to  the  other  as  indicated 
on  the  globe,  and  mark  the  distance  on  the  paper;  then 
measure  off  the  same  distance  on  the  Equator  where  the 
degrees  are  numbered,  beginning  at  the  prime  meridian, 
and  so  ascertain  the  distance  in  degrees.  As  one  degree 
on  a  great  circle  is  6o£  miles,  multiply  this  number  by 
the  number  of  degrees  indicated.  If,  for  instance,  they 
are  6o°  apart,  they  are  sixty  times  69!  miles  apart, 
or  4,150  miles.  Along  the  meridian  of  30°W.  or  else- 
where, at  the  intersection  of  the  parallel  lines,  may  be 
found  Arabic  numerals.  These  indicate  the  length  of  a 
degree  of  longitude  on  the  small  circles  on  which  they 
stand.  The  sun  is  about  95,000,000  miles  distant.  The 
moon  is  about  235,000  miles  distant,  and  is  about  2,000 
miles  in  diameter.  The  earth  is  about  8,000  miles  in 
diameter  and  about  25,000  miles  in  circumference. 


30        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

Third  Series:    For  Upper  Elementary  or 
Lower  Secondary  Grades1 

Direction  of  the  sun.  Illustrating  with  a  globe,  lead 
pupils  to  see  that  to  a  man  standing  on  the  Arctic  Circle 
on  June  21,  the  sun  at  noon  appears  rather  high  in  the 
heavens  in  the  south,  that  at  midnight  it  is  on  the  hori- 
zon in  the  north,  and  that  during  the  entire  twenty- 
four  hours  it  does  not  set.  Lead  them  to  see  that  to  a 
man  standing  at  the  North  Pole  on  that  date  it  seems 
merely  to  swing  around  the  heavens,  some  distance  above 
the  horizon,  but  all  the  time  in  the  south.  At  the  North 
Pole  there  is  no  north,  east,  or  west. 

To  people  living  south  of  the  Equator  the  sun  always 
appears  in  the  north  at  noon. 

When  the  sun  appears  to  you  on  the  horizon  on  the 
morning  of  June  21,  its  rays,  which  then  reach  you  very 
slantingly,  meet  the  earth  vertically  at  a  point  on  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer.  (Fig.  5.)  At  that  point  it  is  noon. 
To  determine  just  where  the  point  is,  learn  from  an  al- 
manac at  what  time  the  sun  rises  at  your  home.  If, 
for  instance,  it  rises  at  4.30  a.m.,  it  will  require  7K  hours 
to  pass  over  to  your  meridian  and  mark  twelve  o'clock, 
noon,  for  you  (1 2  hr.  —  4^  hr.  =  7^  hr.).  As  it  passes  over 
15°  of  longitude  in  one  hr.  (see  p.  32),  in  7 }4  hr.  it  will  pass 

1  The  following  lessons  are  here  inserted  for  such  use  as  teachers 
may  choose  to  make  of  them.  The  substance  of  some  of  them 
appears  in  the  regular  high-school  courses  in  physical  geography 
and  astronomy,  though  they  are  often  pursued  with  little  or  no  ref- 
erence to  a  globe.  All  treat  of  topics  which  every  intelligent  person 
wishes  to  understand.  Some  or  all  of  them  may  be  given  in  the 
upper  elementary  grades,  or  they  may  be  given  in  the  advanced 
grades,  or  they  may  be  omitted,  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 
The  fact  is  not  to  be  overlooked  that,  to  be  effective,  they  must 
be  based  on  actual  observation  of  the  globe  and  of  the  celestial 
bodies  named.  None  ot  them  is  intended  to  give  more  than  the 
merest  simple  outline. 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        31 

over  7>£  times  150,  which  are  112^°.  It  is  seen  there- 
fore that  when  the  sun  first  appears  to  you  on  that  morn- 
ing, it  is  shining  vertically  on  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  at 
a  point  ii2>£0  east  of  your  meridian.  Suppose  your 
meridian  to  be  75°W.  Then  the  point  referred  to  ia 
in  longitude  37^°  E.  Make  this  clear.  (75°  +  37K°  = 
1 1 2%°.)  Find  the  point  on  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  at 
37^°  E.  With  a  piece  of  cord  mark  the  most  direct 
line  on  the  globe  between  your  home  and  that  point. 
This  indicates  the  direction  in  which  on  that  morning 
you  must  look  to  see  the  sun  rise.  You  may  be  surprised 
to  find  that  you  must  look  toward  the  northeast,  as  you 
may  discover  by  comparing  the  direction  of  the  cord  with 
the  direction  of  the  parallels. 

In  similar  manner  the  direction  of  the  sun  at  sunset 
(northwest)  or  at  any  other  time  of  day  may  be  found. 
But  in  applying  this  rule  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 
declination  of  the  sun  on  the  particular  date,  that  is, 
its  distance  north  or  south  of  the  Equator,  which  varies 
according  to  the  time  of  year.  The  declination  on  each 
of  the  solstices  (23^°  north  or  south)  and  each  of  the 
equinoxes  (o°)  is  known.  For  any  other  date,  see  the 
analemma. 

If  it  is  remembered  that  direction  east  and  west  on  the 
globe  is  indicated  by  the  parallels,  some  idea  of  the  direc- 
tion of  the  sun  from  any  point  on  the  earth  may  be  gained 
from  Fig.  5  or  6. 

To  a  man  traveling  north,  the  North  Star  seems  to 
rise  in  the  heavens.  At  the  North  Pole  it  would  seem  to 
be  directly  overhead.  It  is  invisible  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere. 

Longitude  and  time.  From  any  one  meridian  around 
the  earth  directly  east  or  west  to  the  same  meridian,  as 


32        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

measured  on  any  parallel,  there  are  3600  of  distance.  In 
the  rotation  of  the  earth,  the  sun  is  caused  apparently 
to  pass  over  this  distance  from  east  to  west  in  twenty-four 
hours.  In  one  hour  therefore  the  sun  passes  over  is°(i-24 
of  3 6o°  =  15°).  Noon  by  the  sun  arrives  at  any  place  when 
the  sun  shines  vertically  on  the  meridian  which  passes 
through  that  place.  It  follows  that  when,  for  instance, 
it  is  noon  at  any  one  point,  it  is  11  a.m.  at  any  other 
point  located  150  west,  the  sun  not  having  reached  it, 
and  it  is  1  p.m.  at  any  other  point,  150  east,  the  sun 
having  passed  it.  It  is  therefore  seen  that,  toward  the 
west  from  any  point,  time  by  the  sun  is  earlier  (slower), 
while  toward  the  east  it  is  later  (faster).  The  variation 
is  at  the  rate  of  one  hour  for  1 50,  or  four  minutes  for  one 
degree.  Note  that  the  meridians  are  marked  along  the 
Equator  on  the  globe  in  multiples  of  15,  as  15°,  300,  450, 
etc.,  thus  making  it  possible  easily  to  find  the  difference  in 
time  between  any  two  meridians. 

Along  the  Equator,  Roman  numerals,  clock  fashion, 
may  also  be  found  adjacent  to  the  meridians  whose  num- 
bers in  degrees  are  divisible  by  15.  These  numerals  indi- 
cate the  time  on  each  meridian  when  it  is  twelve  o'clock 
on  the  prime  meridian.  Find  the  difference  in  longitude 
and  in  time  between  two  given  meridians  both  of  which 
are  in  east  longitude;  between  two  in  west  longitude;  be- 
tween two  meridians,  one  of  which  is  east  and  the  other 
west. 

Give  problems,  as:  An  event  happens  at  6  p.m.  at  a 
point  on  the  prime  meridian  and  the  news  is  sent  by 
telegraph  to  a  point  750  west  without  loss  of  time.  At 
what  time  is  the  news  received  at  the  latter?  The 
difference  in  longitude  is  750,  hence  the  difference  in  time 
is  five  hours.     (75  -5- 15  =  5.)    As  time  toward  the  west  is 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        33 

earlier  (slower),  the  news  was  received  at  i  p.m.  of  the 
same  day. 

For  exact  measurements  a  degree  is  divided  into  sixty 
equal  parts  called  minutes  (marked  ')  and  each  minute  is 
divided  into  sixty  equal  parts  called  seconds  (marked  ")• 

Table 
60"  make  i' 
60'      "       i° 
3600       "        1  circle 

1'  is  one  nautical  mile. 

If  the  difference  in  time  between  any  two  places  is 
given  in  hours,  minutes,  and  seconds,  the  difference  in 
longitude  may  be  found  by  multiplying  by  1 5  and  calling 
the  result  respectively  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds. 

Time  dial.  The  small,  loose  metal  plate  attached  to 
each  pole  of  the  globe  is  a  time  dial.  It  is  divided  into 
twenty-four  equal  parts  corresponding  to  the  twenty-four 
hours  of  the  day;  generally  into  two  sets  of  twelve  each, 
marked  to  correspond  to  the  clock  record.  By  adjusting 
it  to  any  meridian  so  as  to  show  the  time  thereon,  the 
time  on  any  other  meridian  at  the  same  moment  is  indi- 
cated. With  this  information,  the  pupil  can  easily  deter- 
mine the  difference  in  time  between  the  two  meridians. 

Standard  or  railroad  time.  If  the  people  in  every 
place  reckoned  time  by  the  sun,  no  two  whose  longitude 
differ  would  have  the  same  standard  and  there  would  be 
great  confusion.  In  the  latitude  of  central  New  York, 
a  difference  of  about  eleven  miles,  east  and  west,  makes  a 
difference  of  one  minute  in  time  by  the  sun.  Difference  in 
location  north  and  south  makes  no  difference  in  time. 
Why?  A  man  whose  watch  is  correct  for  his  home  would 
find  it  one  minute  slow  if  he  were  to  go  eleven  miles  to- 
ward the  east  or  one  minute  fast  if  he  were  to  go  eleven 
miles  toward  the  west.     After  traveling  any  considerable 


34        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

distance  east  or  west,  no  man  could  learn  the  exact  local 
time  by  consulting  his  watch.  Watches  and  clocks 
would  be  of  less  use,  railroad  trains  could  not  be  run 
safely,  and  time-tables  would  lose  most  of  their  value. 
Business  would  be  seriously  hampered.  All  inconvenience 
and  loss  on  this  account  are  avoided  by  the  adoption 
in  America  and  elsewhere  of  a  simple  expedient  called 
standard  or  railroad  time.  This  is  based  on  the  knowledge 
that  a  difference  of  150  in  longitude  makes  a  difference  of 
one  hour  in  time,  and  on  the  convenience  of  counting  no 
changes  of  time  except  in  full  hours. 

The  meridian  of  7  50  W. ,  which  passes  through  the  middle 
of  the  state  of  New  York,  differs  from  the  prime  meridian 
in  time  exactly  five  hours.  The  meridiafcpf  900  W.  differs 
six  hours;  of  1050  W.,  seven  hours;  of  ir^  W.,  eight  hours. 
The  plan  is  to  give  to  all  the  territory  in  the  region  of 
each  meridian  whose  number  in  degrees  is  divisible  by  1 5 
the  time  of  that  meridian.  For  instance,  when  it  is  twelve 
o'clock,  noon,  on  the  75th  meridian,  it  is  counted  twelve 
o'clock  over  a  region  halfway  to  the  60th  meridian  on 
the  east  and  halfway  to  the  90th  meridian  on  the  west. 
By  this  plan,  the  United  States  is  divided  into  four  time- 
belts  or  zones  extending  north  and  south,  the  middle  of 
each  being  marked  by  one  of  the  four  meridians  just 
mentioned.  A  traveler  in  the  United  States  therefore 
takes  no  account  of  any  change  in  time  unless  he  passes 
into  another  time-zone,  and  then  the  change  is  exactly 
one  hour.  For  illustration,  if  he  is  going  west,  and  his 
watch  indicates  four  o'clock  on  passing  into  the  next  time- 
zone,  he  knows  that  by  standard  time  it  is  there  three 
o'clock.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  is  going  east  and  his 
watch  indicates  four  o'clock  on  passing  into  the  next  time- 
zone,  he  knows  that  by  standard  time  it  is  there  five  o'clock. 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        35 

Time  is  spoken  of  as  Eastern,  Central,  Mountain,  or 
Pacific  according  as  the  zone  had  in  mind  is  marked  by 
the  meridian  of  750,  900,  1050,  or  1150.  In  practice,  the 
boundaries  between  the  zones  are  irregular. 

International  date  line  and  days  of  the  week.  Hold  the 
globe  so  as  to  represent  noon  at  your  home,  say  750  W. 
Call  the  day,  let  us  say,  Monday.  Now  rotate  the  globe 
properly  and  note  that  as  each  successive  meridian  passes 
under  the  vertical  sun  it  is  Monday  noon  on  that  meridian. 
When  your  home  again  passes  under  the  vertical  sun,  it 
is  again  noon  there,  but  what  day?  You  who  have 
remained  at  home  will  say,  Tuesday.  Then  when  and 
where  was  the  change  made  from  Monday  to  Tuesday? 

By  agreement  between  civilized  nations  a  line  has  been 
chosen  where  such  changes  can  be  made  with  least  incon- 
venience, and  that  line  is  the  meridian  of  1800,  exactly 
opposite  the  prime  meridian,  and  passing  through  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  where  fewest  people  live.  It  is  called  the 
International  Date  Line.  Find  it  on  the  globe,  and 
observe  that  in  some  places  it  is  drawn  to  one  side  of  the 
direct  course.  These  diversions  of  it  have  been  agreed 
upon  to  accommodate  the  people  who  live  on  the  islands 
included.  So  when  the  line  passes  the  vertical  sun  on 
Monday  noon  as  just  seen,  the  people  on  the  west  side  of 
it  immediately  begin  to  call  the  time  Tuesday  noon. 

Place  the  globe  in  a  position  to  represent  noon  on  the 
prime  meridian  (Greenwich),  call  the  day  Monday,  and 
trace  the  day  both  eastward  and  westward.  At  the 
longitude  of  qo°E.  the  sun  is  just  passing  out  of  sight; 
it  is  sunset.  Farther  east  it  is  evening,  Monday  evening, 
while  just  west  of  the  Date  Line  it  is  nearly  midnight  at 
the  end  of  Monday.  On  the  other  hand,  at  the  longitude 
of  900  W.  the  sun  is  just  rising  on  Monday  morning,  while 


36        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

farther  west  and  near  the  Date  Line  it  is  very  early  in  the 
morning  of  Monday.  It  will  be  seen  therefore  that  at  the 
moment  when  it  is  noon  on  the  prime  meridian  it  is  mid- 
night on  the  Date  Line,  that  Monday  is  just  beginning 
immediately  at  the  east  of  the  line  while  it  is  almost  ended 
immediately  at  the  west  of  the  line.  Over  the  whole 
earth  it  is  Monday,  and  both  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  that  day  occur  on  the  Date  Line. 

If  the  globe  be  rotated  ever  so  little  so  as  to  bring  the 
prime  meridian  past  noon,  midnight,  which  marks  the 
division  between  two  days,  moves  to  the  west  of  the  Date 
Line  a  corresponding  distance.  As  Monday  was  ended 
on  the  Date  Line  at  midnight,  the  next  moment  Tuesday 
begins  right  there. 

Rotate  the  globe  still  farther  and  observe  the  effect. 
When  it  is  noon  150  W.  it  is  midnight  (Monday-Tuesday) 
1 50  west  of  the  Date  Line,  which  is  the  same  as  165°  E. 
(i8o°-i5°  =  i65°).  It  is  then  one  o'clock  Monday  after- 
noon on  the  prime  meridian,  while  on  the  Date  Line  it  is 
either  one  o'clock  in  the  early  morning  of  Monday  or 
one  o'clock  in  the  early  morning  of  Tuesday,  according  to 
whether  it  is  considered  from  the  east  side  or  from  the 
west.  If  a  traveler  going  westward  could  at  that  moment 
stand  on  the  east  side  of  the  Date  Line,  to  him  it  is  1  a.m. 
Monday;  but  the  instant  he  steps  across  the  line,  to  him 
it  is  1  a.m.  Tuesday.  So  he  would  be  obliged  to  add  a  day 
to  his  reckoning.  This  is  precisely  what  all  seamen  do 
who  are  sailing  westward.  In  a  similar  manner  it  may  be 
shown  that  travelers  going  east  must  subtract  a  day  on 
crossing  the  Date  Line.  For  instance,  if  the  ship,  going 
east,  reaches  the  Date  Line  on  Tuesday  at  8  a.m.,  the 
seamen  immediately  change  their  record  to  8  a.m.  Monday. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  there  may  be 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        37 

two  consecutive  days  of  the  week  on  the  earth  at  the 
same  time,  and  it  may  easily  be  shown  that  as  the  later, 
beginning  at  the  Date  Line,  spreads  steadily  over  the  whole 
earth  the  earlier  recedes  before  it  and  vanishes  at  the 
Date  Line  at  midnight.  When  it  is  noon  on  the  Date 
Line  the  earth  is  divided  equally  between  two  days. 

Lead  pupils  to  see  that  from  the  moment  when  a  day 
begins  at  midnight  on  the  180th  meridian  to  the  moment 
when  it  ends  in  the  same  place,  forty-eight  hours  must 
elapse,  and  the  earth  must  make  two  complete  rota- 
tions. At  the  end  of  the  first  rotation,  the  day  covers 
the  entire  earth. 

A.M.  and  P.M.  The  day  as  here  meant  is  the  mean 
solar  day  of  twenty-four  hours  as  measured  by  the  clock. 
Solar  days  vary  in  length,  as  will  be  seen  by  reference  to 
the  paragraphs  on  The  Analemma.  The  mean  solar  day  is 
found  by  adding  together  the  exact  lengths  of  all  the  solar 
days  in  the  year  and  dividing  the  sum  by  the  number  of 
days  in  the  year.  Each  day  of  the  week  is  reckoned 
from  midnight  to  midnight.  As  now  commonly  made, 
clocks  keep  a  record  for  twelve  hours  only  and  then  re- 
peat. This  makes  it  necessary  to  add  an  extra  description 
to  distinguish  any  two  points  of  time  in  each  of  the  two 
series  for  the  day.  For  instance,  eight  o'clock  is  de- 
scribed as  8  a.m.  (eight  ante  meridiem;  ante  means  before, 
meridiem  means  midday,  noon),  or  8  p.m.  (eight  post 
meridiem;  post  means  after)  8  a.m.  means  not  eight 
hours  before  noon,  but  the  eight  by  the  clock  which  comes 
before  noon.  Clocks  have  been  made  to  record  time  in 
series  of  twenty-four  hours,  but  they  are  not  common. 

Ocean  currents-  Observe  that  the  waters  of  the 
oceans  fiow  about  in  regular  and  well  marked  currents. 
Trace  the  courses  of  a  few  of  the  most  noticeable.    Give 


38        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

particular  attention  to  the  famous  Gulf  Stream,  which 
pours  a  vast  volume  of  warm  water  from  the  tropical 
region  northward  along  the  east  coast  of  the  United 
States,  thence  diagonally  across  the  ocean  to  the  British 
Isles  and  Norway.  What  effect  has  this  on  the  climate 
of  those  European  countries?  Note  also  the  Labrador 
current,  which  brings  icy  water  south  from  the  Arctic 
region.    What  effect  has  this  on  the  climate  of  Labrador? 

Ocean  cables.  Observe  the  courses  of  the  principal 
ocean  telegraph  cables. 

Isotherms.  An  isotherm  (iso  means  equal  or  same, 
therm  means  heat)  is  a  line  that  connects  places  on  the 
earth's  surface  that  have  the  same  temperature  at  a  given 
time  or  that  have  the  same  average  or  mean  temperature 
during  the  same  period.  Observe  the  isothermal  lines  on 
the  globe.  There  may  be  two  sets,  one  for  January  and 
one  for  July.  It  will  be  seen  that  latitude  (distance  from 
the  equator)  does  not  alone  govern  the  temperature  of 
any  place.  Elevation  above  the  sea,  distance  from  the  sea, 
the  character  of  ocean  currents  that  are  near,  and  other 
conditions  are  factors  that  also  affect  the  temperature. 

Observe  particularly  the  isothermal  lines  that  cross  the 
United  States.  For  instance,  the  line  for  January  (winter) 
that  passes  through  New  York  City  and  shows  an  average 
temperature  of  3oa,  passes  northeastward  to  Iceland  and 
northern  Norway,  within  the  Frigid  Zone,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  after  dipping  southward  to  Missouri,  passes 
far  to  the  northwest  in  southern  Alaska.  In  January, 
therefore,  these  places  all  have  the  same  temperature,  and 
Iceland  and  southern  Alaska  are  as  warm  as  New  York 
City.  The  land  is  then  relatively  colder  than  the  sea. 
But  in  summer  the  conditions  are  different,  so  that  in  the 
same  latitudes  the  land  is  warmer  than  the  sea.    For 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        39 

illustration,  trace  the  isothermal  line  for  July  (summer) 
which  passes  through  Boston,  and  shows  an  average 
temperature  of  700.  Note  that  it  passes  far  to  the  north- 
west into  Canada,  and  then  dips  to  the  south  opposite 
northern  Mexico. 

Earth's  orbit  elliptical.  Stick  two  pins  into  a  piece  of 
cardboard  one-half  inch  apart.  Take  a  piece  of  cord  4^ 
inches  long,  and,  after  tying  the  ends  together,  lay  it 
around  the  pins  on  the  cardboard.  Next,  with  a  pencil 
draw  the  cord  tightly  to  one  side,  and  trace  a  line  around 
both  pins  as  far  from  them  as  the  cord  will  permit.  The 
figure  so  drawn  is  an  ellipse,  and  the  pinholes  are  the  foci 
(singular,  focus;  plural,  forci).  The  earth's  orbit  is  an 
ellipse  and  the  sun  is  one  of  the  foci.  It  follows  that  the 
earth  is  nearer  the  sun  in  one  part  of  its  course  than  else- 
where. When  it  is  nearest  it  is  said  to  be  in  perihelion 
(peri  means  around;  helios  means  sun),  and  when  it  is 
farthest  away  it  is  said  to  be  in  aphelion  (a  means  from). 
Perihelion  occurs  in  the  northern  winter  and  aphelion  in 
the  northern  summer.       1 

Attach  a  piece  of  cord  to  a  weight  and  swing  the  latter 
around  with  differing  lengths.  Observe  that  the  shorter 
the  cord  the  swifter  the  circuits  of  the  weight.  This  will 
illustrate  the  fact  that  the  earth  swings  fastest  when  in 
perihelion,  and  slowest  when  it  is  in  aphelion. 

The  analemma.  The  large  diagram  like  a  figure  8  on 
the  globe  is  called  the  analemma,  and  it  presents  certain 
facts  about  the  earth  in  its  elliptical  course  around  the 
sun.  If  it  is  to  be  understood,  therefore,  the  pupils  should, 
in  consulting  it,  constantly  bear  in  mind  (or,  better,  illus- 
trate) the  relative  position  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit.  It 
is  useful  for  two  purposes.  First,  it  shows  the  declina- 
tion of  the  sun,  that  is,  its  distance  north  or  south  of  the 


40        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

celestial  equator  day  by  day  during  the  year,  or,  what 
is  practically  the  same  thing,  the  latitude  at  which  on 
each  day  its  vertical  rays  meet  the  earth.  The  celestial 
equator  is  an  imaginary  circle  in  the  heavens  directly 
above  the  terrestrial  (earthly)  Equator.  As  the  sun 
never  shines  vertically  beyond  the  tropics,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  analemma  extends  only  from  one  tropic 
to  the  other,  that  is,  from  23^°  N.  to  23^°  S. 

Note  that  on  the  margin  of  the  diagram  are  the  names  of 
the  months  and  a  scale  to  indicate  every  day  of  each  month. 
Observe  that  the  marginal  scales  change  sides  where  the 
two  loops  meet.  The  mark  for  each  day  indicates  the 
exact  position  of  the  parallel  on  which  the  sun  shines 
vertically  at  the  time.  For  instance,  both  March  21 
and  September  2 1  appear  on  the  Equator,  showing  that 
on  those  dates  the  sun  shines  vertically  on  that  circle. 
(See  The  Equinoxes.)  Again,  June  2 1  appears  on  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer,  and  December  21  on  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn, 
showing  the  circles  which  receive  the  vertical  rays  on 
those  dates.  On  the  former  date  the  declination  of  the 
sun  is  said  to  be  23^°  N.;  on  the  latter,  23^°  S.  The 
latitude  of  the  sun  for  any  particular  date  may  be  found 
by  using  a  metallic  or  a  flexible  meridian  having  a  scale 
of  degrees  to  measure  north  or  south  from  the  Equator, 
or,  for  illustrative  purposes,  by  estimating  the  latitude  as 
compared  with  a  known  parallel.  Observe  that  in  some 
months  the  sun  seems  to  move  north  or  south  rapidly,  the 
spaces  for  months  and  days,  as  in  March  and  October, 
being  wide,  while  in  others  it  moves  north  or  south  very 
slowly,  as  in  June  and  December.  In  the  latter  months 
occur  the  solstices.     (See  The  Solstices.) 

Second,  the  analemma  shows  certain  interesting  facts 
about  time  as  indicated  by  the  sun  and  by  a  good  clock. 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        41 

To  begin  with,  if  the  earth  merely  rotated  around  its  axis 
and  did  not  revolve  around  the  sun,  one  day  would  measure 
exactly  one  rotation;  but  because  the  earth  swings  around 
the  sun,  it  is  constantly  changing  its  position,  so  that, 
counting  from  exact  noon  on  any  meridian,  one  rotation 
will  not  quite  bring  the  same  meridian  under  the  sun,  the 
earth  having  moved  farther  around  in  its  orbit.  From 
noon  on  any  meridian,  therefore,  till  noon  the  next  day, 
the  earth  makes  a  little  more  than  one  rotation.  A  day 
as  thus  measured  by  the  sun  is  called  a  solar  day  (sol 
means  sun). 

Bearing  in  mind  that  when  in  or  near  perihelion  the 
earth  swings  faster  than  at  other  periods  (see  Earth's 
Orbit  Elliptical) ,  and  that  when  in  or  near  aphelion  it 
swings  more  slowly,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  distance 
around  its  orbit  which  it  travels  varies  slightly  from  day  to 
day.  <*  The  farther  it  so  travels  in  a  given  time,  the  farther 
it  must  rotate  to  bring  any  meridian  under  the  sun  twice 
in  succession  (from  noon  to  next  noon)  and  therefore  the 
longer  the  day.  The  solar  day  accordingly  varies  in 
length;  hence  it  is  not  perfectly  adapted  to  commercial 
needs.  To  meet  this  objection,  the  average  length  of 
the  solar  days  for  a  year  (called  by  astronomers  the  mean 
solar  day)  has  been  found,  and  this  is  the  exact,  unvarying 
day  as  measured  by  the  clock  and  as  commonly  meant  by 
the  word  day  in  all  civilized  countries.  This  is  the  day 
of  twenty-four  hours. 

The  use  of  the  words  average  and  mean  as  just  used, 
when  understood,  convey  the  idea  that  some  solar  days 
are  longer  than  the  average  and  some  are  shorter;  hence, 
compared  with  time  as  recorded  by  a  good  clock,  time  as 
indicated  by  the  sun  is  sometimes  slow  and  sometimes 
fast.    At  twelve  by  the  clock  it  is  not  always  noon  by  the 


42        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

sun.  The  difference  between  them  is  called  the  equation 
of  time.  These  variations  would  not  occur  if  the  orbit  of 
the  earth  were  circular. 

Again  referring  to  the  analemma,  observe  that,  at  the 
point  where  the  loops  meet,  a  bar  crosses  the  analemma, 
and  on  it  are  marked  very  short  divisions  to  the  right 
and  to  the  left  from  the  meridian  which  passes  through 
the  figure  lengthwise.  These  divisions  constitute  a  scale 
with  which  to  compare  the  dates  shown  around  the  margin 
of  the  figure,  and  indicate  the  difference  in  minutes  between 
sun  time  and  clock  time.  To  make  the  comparison, 
measure  the  distance  from  the  central  or  dividing  meridian 
to  the  inner  margin  of  the  figure  opposite  some  date,  and 
then  measure  off  the  same  distance  from  the  meridian  on 
the  minute  scale  or  bar.  This  gives  the  difference  in  time 
between  the  sun  and  the  clock  on  that  date.  On  all  the 
dates  on  one  side  of  the  meridian  the  sun  is  before  the 
clock,  on  the  dates  on  the  other  side  the  sun  is  after 
the  clock.  Note  that,  on  four  dates  marked  by  the  me- 
ridian, sun  time  and  clock  time  are  the  same. 

The  zodiac.1  Viewed  from  the  earth  in  its  passage 
around  the  sun,  the  sun  seems  to  pass  in  the  same  path, 
and  in  the  same  direction  in  the  opposite  heavens,  making 
the  complete  circuit  in  one  year.  The  path  it  follows  is 
called  the  ecliptic.  The  ecliptic  is  marked  as  an  oblique 
great  circle  on  most  globes,  but  the  orbital  plane  repre- 
sented by  the  top  of  the  circular  wooden  frame  on  a  full 
mounted  globe  gives  a  clearer  idea  of  it.  Around  the 
heavens  astronomers  have  imagined  a  broad  belt  i6°  wide 
(8°  each  side  of  the  ecliptic),  in  the  middle  of  which  the 

iThis  lesson  explains  familiar  references  to  be  found  in  every 
almanac,  but  it  is  of  little  practical  value  and  may  be  omitted  with- 
out much  loss.  The  relations  of  the  signs  to  various  parts  of  the 
human  body  are  merely  fancied. 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        43 

sun  appears  to  pass,  and  this  was  centuries  ago  divided 
into  twelve  equal  parts  of  300  each.  This  belt  is  called 
the  zodiac.  Each  part  was  named  after  a  conspicuous 
group  of  stars  (constellation;  Stella  means  star)  which  it 
included.  Perhaps  in  order  to  make  the  location  of  par- 
ticular stars  easier  of  description,  men  who  had  made  a 
study  of  them  charted  them  ages  ago  by  covering  the 
heavens  with  various  imaginary  outlines  of  animals,  per- 
sons, and  other  objects  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  the 
brightest  stars  in  certain  definite  places  upon  them. 
For  instance,  one  group  appears  in  the  outline  of  Orion, 
who  in  classic  mythology  was  a  famous  hunter.  Three 
bright,  noticeable  stars  in  nearly  a  straight  line  form 
his  belt. 

The  twelve  constellations  in  the  zodiac  across  which  the 
sun  seems  to  pass  are  as  follows:  Aries  (meaning  the 
ram,  symbol,  T),  Taurus  {the  bull,  symbol,  tt ),  Gemini 
{the  twins,  symbol,  H),  Cancer  {the  crab,  symbol,  @), 
Leo  {the  lion,  symbol,  Q.),  Virgo  {the  maiden,  symbol,  TCP), 
Libra  {the  balance,  symbol,  —  ),  Scorpio  {the  scorpion, 
symbol,  Til),  Sagittarius  {the  archer,  symbol,  9^),  Capri- 
cornus  {the  goat,  symbol,  r6),  Aquarius  {the  water-bearer, 
symbol,  «*),  and  Pisces  {the  fishes,  symbol,  X).  When 
the  division  of  the  zodiac  was  made  over  2,000  years  ago, 
the  sun  appeared  to  enter  the  constellation  of  Aries  at  the 
time  of  the  spring  equinox,  about  a  month  later  to  enter 
the  constellation  of  Taurus,  etc.  The  apparent  position 
of  the  sun  in  the  zodiac  and  therefore  the  time  of  year 
were  indicated  approximately  by  naming  the  constella- 
tion in  which  it  appeared.  If  it  was  in  Aries,  for  instance, 
the  time  was  from  about  March  21  to  April  21.  Instead 
of  the  name  of  the  constellation,  the  symbol  or  sign 
was  often  used,  as   tt  for  Taurus.    Later,  the  twelve 


44        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

parts  of  the  zodiac  were  called  signs,  and  are  so  called 
to  this  day.  For  reasons  which  need  not  now  be  explained 
but  which  may  be  learned  by  consulting  a  good  cyclopedia 
under  the  subject  Precession  of  the  Equinoxes,  the  signs  as 
planned  have  every  year  gained  on  the  constellations  a 
little,  or  the  constellations  have  fallen  behind,  so  that 
now  there  is  a  difference  or  discrepancy  of  about  300, 
the  width  of  one  entire  division.  The  result  is  that 
each  constellation  now  lies  in  the  sign  next  in  advance. 
For  illustration,  now,  when  the  sun  is  said  to  be  in  the 
sign  Taurus  it  is  not  in  the  constellation  of  Taurus  as 
it  was  2,000  years  ago,  but  is  in  the  constellation  of 
Aries 

The  orbital  plane  on  a  full  mounted  globe  indicates  the 
signs  of  the  zodiac,  and  the  corresponding  time  in  months 
and  days  over  which  each  extends. 

Planets.  The  earth  is  one  of  several  large  spheres 
or  stars  called  planets  which  revolve  around  the  sun  at 
varying  distances.  They  all  revolve  near  the  plane  of  the 
earth's  orbit  and  in  the  same  direction,  and  so  are  con- 
stantly changing  their  relative  positions  in  the  heavens  as 
compared  with  the  other  stars.  In  the  order  of  their 
distance  from  the  sun,  beginning  with  the  nearest,  they  are 
Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars,  a  group  of  about  600 
much  smaller  bodies  called  asteroids  (aster  means  star; 
oid  means  like),  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune. 
Around  some  of  these  larger  planets  one  or  more  smaller 
or  secondary  planets,  often  called  satellites,  revolve.  All 
these  planets  and  a  few  comets,  together  with  the  sun 
which  holds  them  in  place  and  around  which  they  pass, 
comprise  the  Solar  System.  (Sol  means  sun.)  All  the 
other  stars  are  immeasurably  farther  away,  and  as  they 
are  never  seen  to  move  they  are  called  fixed  stars. 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        45 

The  moon.  The  moon  is  a  sphere  much  smaller  than 
the  earth,  which  revolves  as  a  satellite  around  the  latter 
once  in  about  twenty-eight  days.  If  the  earth  be  repre- 
sented by  a  globe  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  a  ball  three 
inches  in  diameter  would  represent  the  relative  size  of  the 
moon.  It  rotates  around  its  axis,  but  so  slowly  that  it 
turns  only  once  while  it  is  making  one  entire  revolution. 
The  result  is  that  the  same  face  is  always  toward  the 
earth.  Using  the  globe  and  a  ball,  show  that  when  the 
moon  is  on  the  side  opposite  the  sun,  light  from  the  sun 
is  reflected  to  the  earth  by  a  full  hemisphere  of  the  moon, 
thus  showing  a  full  round  face.  This  phase  is  called  the 
full  moon.  We  then  see  the  day  side  of  it.  If  the  ball 
be  painted  white  and  this  lesson  be  given  by  lamplight, 
the  phases  of  the  moon  can  be  shown  more  clearly.  When 
the  moon  is  on  the  same  side  as  the  sun,  no  light  is 
reflected  from  it  to  the  earth.  It  then  appears  dark,  as 
the  night  side  of  it  is  toward  us.  When  it  begins  to  show 
its  day  side  we  say  the  moon  is  new. 

Eclipses.  When  it  occurs  that  the  earth  is  exactly 
between  the  sun  and  the  moon,  the  shadow  of  the  earth 
passes  across  the  moon,  and  we  say  there  is  an  eclipse  of 
the  moon.  The  fact  that  this  shadow  is  always  round  is 
one  of  the  proofs  that  the  earth  is  spherical.  When  the 
moon  passes  exactly  between  the  sun  and  the  earth,  the 
body  of  the  moon  obscures  the  sun  and  we  say  there  is  an 
eclipse  of  the  sun.    (See  Figs.  9  and  10.) 

Tides.  The  earth,  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  all  other 
bodies  attract  each  other.  The  attraction  of  the  sun,  for 
instance,  is  strong  enough  to  hold  the  earth  in  its  course, 
as  has  been  shown,  and  the  attraction  of  the  earth  is 
strong  enough  to  hold  the  moon  in  its  course.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  attraction  of  the  moon  is  so  strong  that  it 


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48        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

draws  toward  it  a  little  the  water  in  the  oceans  and  else- 
where. From  far  east  and  far  west  the  water  moves  a 
little  toward  the  point  nearest  the  moon,  and  the  summit 
or  high  water  ridge  follows  under  that  body  as,  during  the 
rotation  of  the  earth,  all  parts  of  its  surface  are  successively 
turned  toward  the  moon.  For  reasons  not  so  clearly 
explainable,  the  water  is  also  heaped  up  slightly  on  the 
side  opposite  the  moon.  Each  of  these  summits  is  both 
preceded  and  followed  by  a  depression  lying  halfway 
between  them.  During  the  period  therefore  between 
two  successive  passages  of  the  moon  across  any  meridian, 
sometimes  called  a  lunar  day  (luna  means  moon)  and 
requiring  about  twenty-five  hours,  the  water  in  all  large 
bodies  noticeably  rises  and  falls  twice.  The  variation 
ranges  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet.  This  alternate 
rising  and  falling  is  called  the  tide. 

The  sun  affects  the  water  in  a  similar  manner,  but  though 
it  is  very  many  times  larger  than  the  moon  it  is  so  much 
more  distant  that  its  force  in  producing  tides  is  reduced  to 
one  third  that  of  the  latter.  When  the  sun  acts  in  con- 
junction with  the  moon,  that  is,  when  the  moon  is  either 
on  the  side  of  the  earth  toward  the  sun  or  on  the  side 
opposite  the  sun,  the  force  of  the  sun  is  added  to  that  of 
the  moon  and  the  tides  run  very  high  and  very  low.  Such 
tides  are  called  spring  tides.  Show  that  this  condition 
occurs  at  new  moon  and  at  full  moon  when  the  sun,  the 
moon,  and  the  earth  are  in  a  line.  But  when  the  sun 
draws  the  water  in  a  direction  very  different  from  that  of 
the  moon,  the  force  of  the  sun  operates  against  that  of 
the  moon  and  the  tides  that  follow  the  moon  run  neither 
very  high  nor  very  low.  Such  tides  are  called  neap  tides. 
Show  that  they  occur  at  the  first  and  third  quarters  of  the 
moon,  when  it  and  the  sun  appear  900  apart. 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        49 

High  tides  would  follow  directly  under  the  moon  were  it 
not  that  the  continents  lie  across  their  course  and  intercept 
them,  and  that  even  islands  and  the  bottom  of  the  oceans 
retard  them.  So  high  tide  lags  behind  the  moon,  and  in 
some  regions  follows  several  hours  after  it. 


THE  USE  OF  MAPS 

Direct   observation   for   fundamental  ideas.    In   the 

study  of  any  object  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  object  itself 
at  hand  for  observation,  for  conceptions  gained  by  direct 
operation  of  the  senses  are  most  correct  and  clear.  So 
the  best  way  to  learn  local  geography  is  actually  to  see 
the  land  and  water  forms,  the  plants  and  animals,  the 
buildings,  railroads,  and  other  works  of  men.  This  is 
entirely  practicable  within  a  narrowly  limited  range,  and 
it  is  adapted  to  small  children  and  others  who  are  just 
beginning  to  acquire  fundamental  ideas  of  the  earth. 
Direct  observation  beyond  this  range  would  involve  travel 
and  expense  that  might  be  impossible;  yet  it  is  easy  for 
any  child  to  obtain  a  fairly  correct  idea  of  great  land  and 
water  forms  that  are  far  distant  by  noting  even  tiny 
models,  as  found  in  a  muddy  road  or  built  in  sand  on  a 
molding  board  at  school.  Any  such  idea,  though  some- 
what dim  and  incorrect,  may  be  made  vivid  and  true  to 
a  certain  degree  by  the  use  of  pictures.  Pictures  based 
on  photographs  or  on  direct  observation  are  records  of 
things  seen,  and  so  they  may  be  used  to  bring  to  the  mind 
of  the  learner  scenes  that  others,  more  favored,  have 
beheld  with  their  eyes.  They  enable  one  to  travel  easily, 
cheaply,  and  widely  by  proxy,  to  see  with  the  eyes  of 
others.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  collect  pictures 
to  illustrate  the  topics  of  study.  These  may  be  obtained 
from  magazines,  papers,  and  elsewhere.  If  they  are 
neatly  mounted  on  clean  paper  and  are  classified  for 
convenient  reference  later,  so  much  the  better. 
But  pictures  have  their  limitations.    Each  represents 

50 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        51 

but  a  single  view,  from  only  one  point,  of  only  a  small 
bit  of  the  earth.  Of  course  they  appeal  to  only  one  sense, 
that  of  seeing.  They  do  not  clearly  indicate  direction, 
relative  location,  altitude,  or  other  important  facts. 

The  purpose  of  a  map.  It  will  be  perceived  that  there 
is  need  of  some  means  of  obtaining  certain  fundamental 
ideas  about  the  earth  or  parts  thereof  which  cannot  be 
obtained  from  pictures  or  from  a  succession  of  pictures 
or  views  from  a  car  window.  A  map  is  one  of  the  inven- 
tions to  meet  this  need.  It  enables  the  student  at  a 
glance  to  grasp  some  of  the  essential  features  of  a  wide 
scope,  such  as  relative  location,  direction,  size,  and 
distance,  a  knowledge  of  which  forms  a  necessary  frame- 
work that  later  shall  be  rounded  out  with  innumerable 
ideas  gained  by  the  study  of  history,  science,  and  com- 
merce. No  careful  student  of  history  fails  to  trace  on  a 
map  the  progress  of  events;  no  intelligent  person  under- 
takes a  long  journey  without  first  having  planned  his 
route  with  the  aid  of  a  map.  All  knowledge  which 
involves  location  on  the  earth  is  fixed  more  clearly  in 
mind  and  is  retained  more  securely  in  memory  when  it  is 
assigned  to  its  proper  place  by  means  of  a  map.  But  the 
mistake  of  considering  a  thorough  understanding  of  maps 
the  chief  aim  of  geographic  study  must  not  be  made. 
They  serve  mainly  as  an  important  and  necessary  means 
of  making  an  orderly  arrangement  of  more  valuable 
knowledge  of  the  earth's  surface. 

Beginnings  of  map  drawing.  That  the  child  may  learn 
to  understand  a  map,  he  should  first  be  taught  to  make  a 
chart  or  map  of  some  area  close  by  and  easily  to  be  seen, 
such  as  the  schoolroom  or  the  school  yard.  Objects 
located  therein  should  be  indicated,  and  the  whole  should 
be  correctly  drawn  to  some  convenient  scale  based  on 


52        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

actual  measurements,  as  one  inch  to  four  feet,  or  one  inch 
to  twenty  feet. 

Toward  the  top  of  the  sheet  is  always  considered  north, 
and,  until  the  child  can  read  the  map  without  confusion, 
the  top  of  it  should  lie  toward  the  true  north.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  the  practice  of  hanging  maps  on  the 
wall  or  holding  them  upright,  as  it  is  very  proper  to  do 
after  a  little  time,  has  led  to  the  universal  misconception 
that  toward  the  north  is  up,  and  that  a  river  which  flows 
north  flows  "up  hill." 

Course  of  instruction  progressive.  In  general,  the 
course  of  instruction  will  proceed  from  the  home  region 
outward,  from  the  smaller  unit  to  the  larger,  from  the 
simpler  to  the  more  complex,  as  from  the  school  yard  to 
the  school  district,  thence  to  the  town,  to  the  county,  to 
the  state,  to  the  United  States,  to  North  America,  to  the 
other  continents  and  the  world.  But  this  course  should 
be  reversed  all  along  enough  to  show  the  true  relations 
between  the  smaller  units  and  the  larger. 

Reading  the  map.  It  will  be  seen  that,  very  soon,  the 
child  takes  up  the  study  of  units  that  extend  far  and  farther 
beyond  the  limits  of  his  vision  and  beyond  the  limits 
of  his  travels.  It  is  then  that  he  must  rely  on  his  ability 
to  understand  the  conventional  markings  of  the  map  to 
indicate  shore  lines,  political  boundaries,  mountains,  rivers, 
cities,  etc.,  and  to  form  a  corresponding  mental  picture 
of  the  region  which  it  represents.  In  doing  this  he  must 
take  account  of  relative  distances  and  directions.  Photo- 
graphs or  other  pictures  based  on  them  should  be  used  to 
supplement  the  map. 

Map  sketching.  The  map  outlines  should  early  be 
fixed  in  the  memory,  and  this  is  done  by  copying  them 
and  by  using  them.     As  the  eye  observes  the  model,  a 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        53 

corresponding  map  is  outlined  in  the  mind ;  and  as  the  hand, 
in  drawing,  works  out  each  form,  a  corresponding  form  is 
etched  into  the  memory.  Exact  and  laborious  copying 
is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable.  After  close  observation 
of  a  perfect  map,  a  rapid  sketch  should  be  made  from 
memory,  on  blackboard  or  paper,  and  compared  with 
the  original.  If  the  sketch  is  very  imperfect  it  should  be 
destroyed  and  others  should  be  drawn  until  one  has  been 
made  that  is  at  least  fairly  satisfactory.  That  the  names 
may  be  closely  associated  with  the  corresponding  objects, 
it  is  a  good  plan  for  each  pupil  to  name  orally  every  object 
as  he  draws  it  on  the  blackboard  before  the  class,  or  to 
write  the  name  if  his  sketch  is  on  paper.  A  map  of  the 
immediate  home  region  may  contain  considerable  detail, 
but  the  amount  of  it  should  be  diminished  steadily  from 
that  place  outward. 

Maps  fiat  and  spherical.  Wall  maps  are  flat ;  and  while 
they  represent  small  areas  well  enough  for  most  practical 
purposes,  it  is  seen  at  once  that  they  cannot  perfectly 
represent  large  areas  of  the  earth's  surface  owing  to  the 
radical  difference  between  a  plane  or  flat  surface  and  a 
sphere.  A  wall  map  of  a  hemisphere,  for  instance,  is  a 
circular  figure  on  a  flat  piece  of  paper,  but  a  globe  map  of 
a  hemisphere  is  more  like  the  peel  from  one  half  an  orange. 
The  most  correct  idea  of  a  large  area  is  therefore  to  be 
gained  from  a  globe.  To  picture  the  globe  form  on  a 
map  as  closely  as  possible,  meridians  and  parallels  are 
drawn,  so  that  by  observing  them  from  a  little  distance 
one  can  imagine  that  he  is  looking  at  a  portion  of  a  globe. 
In  lessons  on  the  globe  it  is  learned  that  in  passing  north 
or  south  one  must  follow  a  meridian,  and  that  in  passing 
east  or  west  one  must  follow  a  parallel.  On  wall  maps, 
those  are  great  curved  lines.    A  little  careful  thought 


54        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

will  show  even  young  pupils  that,  on  a  map  representing 
a  wide  region,  toward  the  top  may  not  be  directly  north 
and  toward  the  right  may  not  be  directly  east. 

There  is  a  kind  of  map  called  Mercator's  which  repre- 
sents the  earth  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder.  It  serves  the 
purpose  for  which  it  was  intended,  but  it  is  misleading  to 
those  who  do  not  know  how  to  use  it  properly. 

Practical  use.  To  gain  full  advantage  of  a  map,  not 
only  must  it  be  understood  and  the  main  features  of  it 
held  in  mind,  but  the  habit  of  using  it  must  be  acquired. 
Whenever  there  is  occasion  it  must  be  consulted,  other- 
wise the  ideas  which  involve  relative  location,  distance, 
and  direction  are  certain  to  be  hazy,  incorrect,  and  short 
lived.  For  the  sake  of  economy  of  time  and  effort,  which 
have  a  money  equivalent,  no  school  can  afford  to  be  with- 
out maps,  and  the  services  of  a  teacher  who  can  and  will 
make  use  of  them  are  more  valuable  on  that  account. 

No  person  can  read  history  very  intelligently  or  re- 
member it  very  long  without  referring  to  a  map.  If,  for 
instance,  the  topic  of  study  be  Burgoyne's  campaign, 
the  course  of  his  army  should  be  carefully  followed.  If 
a  member  of  the  school  take  an  interesting  journey,  all 
will  enjoy  tracing  it.  In  fact,  throughout  life,  whatever 
be  the  subject  of  reading  or  discussion,  the  matter  of 
location  should  receive  due  attention.  That  instruction 
is  faulty  which  does  not  fix  in  the  mind  a  good  general 
idea  of  the  land  and  water  forms,  political  boundaries, 
cities,  and  railroads,  and  which  does  not  inculcate  the 
habit  of  promptly  consulting  a  map  as  there  is  occasion 
for  every  unknown  fact  that  it  can  show. 

Care  of  Maps.  Soiled,  wrinkled,  faded,  or  torn  maps 
are  repulsive  and  are  therefore  far  less  liable  to  be  consulted 
than  they  would  be  if  in  good  condition.    The  interests 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        55 

of  economy,  cleanliness,  sanitation,  and  sound  educational 
practice  require  that,  like  all  other  school  property,  maps, 
globes,  books,  and  other  school  appliances  shall  be  pro- 
tected from  abuse  and  shall  be  kept  in  good  order.  But 
protection  of  them  should  not  be  allowed  to  prohibit  in 
the  slightest  degree  the  legitimate  use  of  them.  When 
maps  are  not  in  use,  they  should  be  rolled  tightly  to 
keep  out  dust  and  should  be  laid  away  carefully.  Spring- 
roller  cases  for  them  are  highly  desirable. 


A  SUGGESTED   COURSE  OF  LESSONS 

The  following  brief  outline  of  map  lessons  is  appended 
merely  to  indicate  an  order  of  development  and  some 
things  to  be  accomplished.  It  is  not  intended  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  any  part  of  the  textbook  on  geography.  The 
inexperienced  teacher,  who,  uninformed  regarding  the 
full  value  of  maps  in  geographic  study,  makes  little  or 
no  use  of  those  which  liberal-minded  trustees  or  directors 
have  provided,  may  perhaps  here  get  some  hint  of  the 
possibilities  that  lie  in  a  well-made  school  map.  The 
course  is  to  be  modified  at  the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 
The  exact  number  of  years  to  be  occupied  depends 
entirely  on  local  conditions. 

Third  and  Fourth  Years 
measurements 
Measuring   lengths   of   various   objects   for   practical 

knowledge  of  linear  measure. 
Estimating  distances,   then  measuring,   to  train  and 

test  the  judgment. 
Using  units  of  increasing  lengths. 
Comprehension  of  long  distances. 
Acquired  by  traveling. 

Acquired  by  using  time  element  in  computation. 
(As,  rate  per  hour  and  number  of  hours  required 
to  travel  from  one  point  to  another  are  factors 
that  would  make  comprehension  easier.) 

SCALES 

Representing  long  lines  by  short  ones. 

Beginning  with  short  measurements  and  easy  ratios. 

56 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        57 

(As,  measurements  in  inches  and  the  ratio  i  to  2.) 

Adapting  ratio  to  new  and  longer  measurements. 

Continuing  until  the  significance  of  scale  is  grasped, 

and  the  pupils,   on  noting  the  scale,   can  readily 

estimate  with  fair  accuracy  the  distances  indicated. 

DIRECTION 

Idea  first  to  be  obtained  by  observation  of  rising  and 

setting  sun. 
Four  cardinal  points,  north,  east,  etc. 
Four  intermediate  points,  northeast,  southeast,  etc. 
If  compass  is  shown,  explain  that  needle  is  turned  by 

magnetic  force,  and  that  it  does  not  everywhere 

point  exactly  north. 

MAP   DRAWING 

Small  areas,  near  by,  that  can  be  measured.    Scales. 

Increasingly  larger  areas,  measurements  estimated. 

Entering  only  important  details. 

At  first,  paper  horizontal,  pupil  facing  north. 

Later,  the  positions  of  paper  and  pupil  to  suit  con- 
venience. 

Explain  custom  of  calling  top  of  sheet  north,  the  right 
side  east,  etc. 

RELIEF   MAPS 

First  maps  based  on  assumption  that  ground  is  flat. 

Variations  in  elevation  as  well  as  outline  may  be  repre- 
sented on  a  map. 

Shaping  models  in  sand,  with  glass  for  lakes,  colored 
threads  for  political  boundaries,  etc. 

Caution:  To  avoid  badly  distorted  and  very  harmful 
view,  care  must  be  taken  to  make  the  proportions 


58        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

correct  if  the  work  is  undertaken  at  all.     Tendency 

to  exaggerate  altitudes  enormously. 
Such  models  called  relief  maps.     Drawings  of  such 

maps,  also  called  relief  maps;  these  may  be  of  greatest 

value. 
Relief  features  shown,   but  imperfectly,   on   political 

maps  by  lines  of  shading  and  use  of  colors. 

READING   MAPS 

Use  of  maps  a  kind  of  reading  in  which  arbitrary  signs, 
as  dots,  lines,  and  colors,  are  made  to  stand  for 
political  and  physical  features.  (Distinction  between 
political  and  physical.) 

Map  not  a  picture  any  more  than  a  sentence  is  a  picture. 

TOWN  AND  COUNTY 

Extending  study  to  town  (or  township  as  so  called  in 

some  states),  then  to  county. 
School  maps  of  these  divisions. 

Copying  and  enlarging  small  maps  if  none  suitable 
are  on  the  market. 
Observing  relative  position  and  size  of  town  (or  town- 
ship) in  county,  and  of  county  in  state. 
Uniformity  in  size. 
Early  government  surveys,  in  some  regions,  espe- 
cially  where    country   was    comparatively  level, 
made  standard  size  of  township  about  36  square 
miles.     More  exactly,  the  south,  east,  and  west 
boundaries  measured  6  miles  each,  and  the  north 
boundary  slightly  less  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
boundary  lines  on  the  east  and  the  west  took  the 
direction  of  the  respective  meridians,  and  so  con- 
verged a  little  toward  the  north.    Each  square 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        59 

mile  (approximate  measurement,  as  just  shown) 
is  called  a  section,  and  contains  about  640  acres. 

FIRST  SURVEY  OF  THE  CONTINENTS  AND  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Use  of  globe  for  general  ideas  of  earth,  continents  and 
oceans,  climate,  etc. 

Globe  lessons  to  be  continued  from  time  to  time. 

Preliminary  study  of  North  America  and  United  States. 
Of  the  remaining  continents. 

Outline  of  topics. 
Position,  form  (outline),  size,  relief,  drainage,  political 
divisions,  climate. 

Earth  lessons  vital  to  thorough  understanding  of 
character  and  distribution  of  plants  and  animals, 
and  of  the  characteristics,  history,  and  activity  of 
races  and  nations.    These  to  have  some  attention. 

Fifth,  Sixth,  and  Seventh  Years 

the  state 

Relative  position  and  size  in  United  States. 
Special   wall    map    showing    outline    and  bordering 
territory. 

Should  include  counties,  principal  physical  features 
such  as  mountains,  lakes,  and  streams,  main  lines 
of  railroad,  canals,  cities,  and  little,  if  anything, 
else.    As  far  as  practicable,  lettered  names  visible 
at  class  distance. 
Very  much  detail  perplexes  a  child,  who  will  carry 
away  confused  mental  picture  and  fail  to  distin- 
guish important  from  unimportant. 
Outline  of  topics  as  under  "First  Survey." 
Inferring  much  that  is  not  stated.  (As,  if  the  streams 


60        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

flow  east  the  land  slopes  that  way;  or  if  the  country 

is  hilly  the  principal  occupation  is  liable  to  be  mining 

or  manufacturing  or  grazing.) 
Asking  questions  that  tell  little  and  require  much. 

The  inquiry,  "Why?"  may  be  repeated  more  fre- 
quently. (As,  "Why  is  this  county  thickly  settled 
while  that  is  not?"  Or  "Why  is  a  city  here  and 
none  there  ? "  Or  "  Why  is  this  occupation  followed 
here  while  that  is  followed  there?") 

Sketching  of  map  by  pupil  may  answer  most  satis- 
factorily a  hundred  possible  questions. 
One's  own  state   and   country  deserve  more  careful 

study  than  any  other  state  or  country. 

SECOND   SURVEY 

Fuller  survey  of  North  America,  the  United  States, 
and  the  remaining  continents,  including  not  only  a 
closer  observation  of  details  as  shown  by  the  maps 
and  globes  but  also  a  broader  study  of  the  peoples 
of  the  earth.  The  physical  features  of  a  country 
and  its  climate  determine  the  growth  of  vegetation, 
this  in  turn  determines  the  character  of  the  animal 
life,  and  all  four,  with  the  distribution  of  useful 
mineral  deposits,  are  factors  in  determining  the  den- 
sity of  population  and  the  occupations  of  the  people. 
When  the  conditions  under  which  people  must  live 
are  known,  it  is  easier  to  understand  their  manners 
and  customs.  And  when  the  occupations  are  known, 
it  is  easier  to  trace  the  course  of  commercial  currents 
and  to  account  for  the  establishment  of  great  steam- 
ship and  railroad  lines.  Everywhere  the  chains  of 
cause  and  effect  are  visible,  and  in  this  second  survey 
the  emphasis  is  to  be  laid  on  the  larger  facts  of 


Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools        61 

industrial  and  political  life.  It  is  this  enlightening 
consummation  of  the  study  of  elementary  geography 
which  justifies  the  careful  preparation  herein  con- 
templated. 

A  good  elementary  work  on  physical  geography  would 
be  useful  to  the  teacher  and  would  be  interesting  to 
some  of  the  pupils,  but  the  formal  study  of  that  sub- 
ject is  best  adapted  to  more  advanced  grades.  Good 
relief  maps  would  be  helpful. 

The  interests  of  intelligent  people  have  become  world- 
wide; and  maps  and  globes,  whose  value  and  whose 
limitations  are  recognized,  have  never  played  so 
important  a  part  in  education  as  now. 


THE  INDEX 

(All  figures  refer  to  pages;  references  in  heavy  type  indicate  diagrams) 

Alaska,  winter  temperature,  38. 

A.M.,  37. 

Analemma,  39-42. 

Antarctic  Circle,  19,  20,  21,  23. 

Aphelion,  21,  39. 

Aquarius,  43,  20. 

Arctic  Circle,  19,  20,  21,  23. 

Aries,  43. 

Asteroids,  44. 

Axis,  definition,  10;  function,  14;  inclination,  17-18. 

Big  Dipper,  15,  16,  17. 

Boston,  summer  temperature,  39. 

British  Isles,  effect  of  Gulf  Stream,  38. 

Canada,  summer  temperature,  39. 

Cancer,  Tropic  of,  19,  23. 

Cancer  (Zodiac),  43. 

Capricorn,  Tropic  of,  21,  23. 

Capricornus,  43. 

Circles,  great,  11;  small,  11. 

Climate,  seasons,  14-15;  zones,  15,  28-29. 

Constellation,  43. 

Date  Line,  International,  35-37. 

Day,  lunar,  48;  solar,  41;  day  and  night,  14. 

Degree,  unit  of  measure,  12;  divisions  of,  33. 

Dial,  33. 

Directions,  cardinal,  10. 

Distance,  by  degrees,  33;  measurement  on  globe,  29. 

Earth,  axis,  10,  14;  circumference,  9;  diameter,  29;  ecliptic, 
17,  42;  foci  of  orbit,  39;  inclination,  17-18;  motions,  17;  orbit, 
14,  17;  position  in  planetary  system,  44;  revolution,  13,  14-15; 
rotation,  10,  13-14;  sphericity,  9. 

Eclipses,  45;  of  sun,  46;  of  moon,  47. 

Ecliptic,  17,  42. 

Equation  of  Time,  42. 

Equator,  celestial,  ao;  definition,  11;  inclination  of  sun's  rays,  20; 
latitude,  12;  length  of  degree,  13;  terrestrial,  40. 

Equinox,  18-22,  27;  autumn,  20,  21,  27;  precession,  44;  spring, 
21,  22,  27. 

62 


Globes  and  Mdps  in  Bfanffiajty,:  SckQoffi        63 

Foci  of  Earth's  Orbit,  39. 
Frigid  Zones,  15,  24,  28. 

Gemini,  43. 

Globes,  method  of  drawing,  53. 

Greenwich,  meridian,  12. 

Gulf  Stream,  climatic  influence,  38. 

Hemispheres,  classification,  10;  definition,  9,  11;  effect  of  sun's 

rays,  26;  seasonal  changes,  15. 
History,  map  study,  54 
Horizon,  22,  25;  rational,  25;  semicircle,  25. 
Horizon  Circle,  14. 

Iceland,  winter  temperature,  38. 
International  Date  Line,  35-37. 
Isotherms,  38-39. 

Jupiter,  44. 

Labrador,  temperature,  38. 

Latitude,  12.. 

Leo,  43. 

Libra,  43. 

Longitude,  definition,  12-13;  longitude  and  time,  31-32. 

Lunar  Day,  48. 

Maps,  care,  54;  directions,  52;  drawing,  51;  flat,  53;  history 
study,  54;  Mercator's,  54;  purpose,  51;  reading,  52;  wall,  53; 

.  use,  54. 

Mars,  44. 

Mercator's  projection,  54. 

Mercury,  44. 

Meridian,  11-12,  11,  prime,  12,  13;  meridians  and  time,  32. 

Mexico,  summer  temperature,  39. 

Mile,  nautical,  33. 

Minute,  definition,  33. 

Missouri,  winter  temperature,  38. 

Moon,  45;  diameter  and  distance,  29;  eclipse,  47;  tidal  influence, 
46,  48-49. 

Nautical  mile,  33. 

Neptune,  44. 

New  York,  winter  temperature,  38. 

Night  and  day,  14. 

North,  how  to  find,  15,  16. 

North  Star,  15,  16, 17;  position,  31. 

Norway,  climate,  38. 

Ocean,  cables,  38;  currents,  37-38;  influence  on  climate,  38. 
Orbit  of  Earth,  14;  ellipticity,  39;  plane,  17. 


64        Globes  and  Maps  in  Elementary  Schools 

Parallels,  ii,  ii. 

Penumbra,  46,  47. 

Perihelion,  21,  39. 

Pisces,  43. 

Planets,  44. 

P.m.,  37. 

Polaris,  15. 

Pole,  North,  South,  10;  latitude,  12;  light  and  heat,  19-20,  22. 

Precession  of  the  Equinoxes,  44. 

Quadrant,  18. 

Sagittarius,  43. 
Saturn,  44. 
Scorpio,  43. 
Seasons,  14-15,  25-28. 
Seconds,  definition,  33. 
Solar  Day,  37,  41. 
Solar  System,  44. 

Solstice,  21,  25;  on  analemma,  40;  summer,  23;  winter,  21,  24. 
Stars,  fixed,  44. 

Suggested  Course  of  Lessons,  56-61. 

Sun,  declination,  39-40;  direction,  30-31;  distance,  29;  eclipse,  46; 
influence  on  tides,  48;  source  of  light  and  heat,  14,  25-26. 

Taurus,  43. 

Temperate  Zones,  15,  24,  28. 

Tides,  45,  48-49;  neap,  48;  spring,  48. 

Time  Belts  of  United  States,  34-35;  dial,  33;  equation,  42;  rail- 
road, 33-35;  standard,  33-35;  time  and  longitude,  31,  33;  shown 
by  analemma,  40. 

Torrid  Zone,  14,  24,  28. 

Tropic  of  Cancer,  19,  23,  26. 

Tropic  of  Capricorn,  21,  23. 

Umbra,  46,  47. 

Uranus,  44. 

Ursa  Major,  15. 

United  States,  isotherms,  38;  time  belts,  34-38. 

Venus,  44. 
Virgo,  43. 

Zodiac,  42-44. 

Zones,  climatic,  15,  24,  28-29. 


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